D with EW or mock-infected. Animals were sacrificed nine days post-infection

D with EW or mock-infected. Animals were sacrificed nine days post-infection and immune cell populations in the PPs and MLNs were analyzed by flow cytometry (Figure 1). The percentage of CD4+ T cells increased in GRA-treated, uninfected mice compared to vehicle-treatedcontrols in the MLNs, but not in the PPs. In the PPs, CD8+ T cells were significantly increased in GRA-treated, infected mice relative to vehicle-treated, infected mice. CD8+ T cells also appeared to increase in the MLNs in GRA-treated, uninfected mice compared to vehicle-treated animals, but this increase did not score as significant. These data suggest GRA may have an effect on T cell accumulation in these inductive tissues, particularly CD8+ T cells in PP of infected mice. Analysis of myeloid cell populations in GRA- or vehicle-treated, infected animals showed significant differences in dendritic cell (DC) subsets CD11chigh and AZ876 CD11clow, as well as macrophage (CD11b+) cell populations in the MLNs. The only significant difference observed in the PPs was CD11b+ cells in GRA treated, uninfected mice. A striking difference in the CD138+ population was observed between mice given GRA and mice administered vehicle. CD138 (syndecan-1) is expressed on pre-B and immature B cells in the bone marrow, absent on circulating B cells, and re-expressed on plasma cells [26]. GRA-treated mice had a significantly higher percentage of CD138+ cells than vehicle-treated mice both in the MLNs and the PPs (Figure 1). This difference was not observed in GRA-treated infected mice, likely overshadowed by influx of lymphocytes into these tissues in response to virus infection. To investigate this further and determine the kinetics of the initial response, mice (uninfected) were gavaged with GRA or vehicle, and MLNs and PPs were harvested 24 and 48 hours posttreatment (Figure 2). CD138+ cells were increased in both tissues by 48 hours in animals given GRA, but not in animals given vehicle, suggesting GRA affects B cell differentiation in these mucosal inductive sites.GRA Induces CD19+ B Cell Recruitment to the LPTo test how the timing of GRA dosing affected B and T cell populations in mucosal inductive sites as well as in the LP effector site, mice were treated either one day pre-infection and one day post-infection (or mock-infection) as before, or every other day for the course of the experiment. In the MLNs, significant increases in the CD8+ T cell population in GRA-treated, uninfected mice relative to vehicle-treated controls were observed (Figure 3). ThereGRA Induces ILF FormationFigure 1. Immune cell populations modulated by GRA in uninfected and rotavirus -infected mice. C57Bl/6 mice (n = 5 per group) were administered GRA or vehicle alone orally one day pre-infection with 105 SD50 of murine rotavirus strain EW, and then one day post-infection. Cells isolated from the MLNs and PPs were analyzed for changes in B cells (CD19), T cells (CD4 and CD8), their activation (CD69); and dendritic cells (CD11chigh and CD11clow), MedChemExpress AKT inhibitor 2 macrophages (CD11b), and plasma cells (CD138). *p,0.05, **p,0.01. Error bars are SEM. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049491.gwere no differences in CD4+ or CD8+ T cell populations between the different dosing schedules. In PPs, there were no significant differences in CD4+ T cells between GRA-treated and vehicle-treated uninfected or infected animals, except the overall percentages in infected mice were somewhat higher. In contrast, CD8+ T cells in the PPs markedly increased in GRA-t.D with EW or mock-infected. Animals were sacrificed nine days post-infection and immune cell populations in the PPs and MLNs were analyzed by flow cytometry (Figure 1). The percentage of CD4+ T cells increased in GRA-treated, uninfected mice compared to vehicle-treatedcontrols in the MLNs, but not in the PPs. In the PPs, CD8+ T cells were significantly increased in GRA-treated, infected mice relative to vehicle-treated, infected mice. CD8+ T cells also appeared to increase in the MLNs in GRA-treated, uninfected mice compared to vehicle-treated animals, but this increase did not score as significant. These data suggest GRA may have an effect on T cell accumulation in these inductive tissues, particularly CD8+ T cells in PP of infected mice. Analysis of myeloid cell populations in GRA- or vehicle-treated, infected animals showed significant differences in dendritic cell (DC) subsets CD11chigh and CD11clow, as well as macrophage (CD11b+) cell populations in the MLNs. The only significant difference observed in the PPs was CD11b+ cells in GRA treated, uninfected mice. A striking difference in the CD138+ population was observed between mice given GRA and mice administered vehicle. CD138 (syndecan-1) is expressed on pre-B and immature B cells in the bone marrow, absent on circulating B cells, and re-expressed on plasma cells [26]. GRA-treated mice had a significantly higher percentage of CD138+ cells than vehicle-treated mice both in the MLNs and the PPs (Figure 1). This difference was not observed in GRA-treated infected mice, likely overshadowed by influx of lymphocytes into these tissues in response to virus infection. To investigate this further and determine the kinetics of the initial response, mice (uninfected) were gavaged with GRA or vehicle, and MLNs and PPs were harvested 24 and 48 hours posttreatment (Figure 2). CD138+ cells were increased in both tissues by 48 hours in animals given GRA, but not in animals given vehicle, suggesting GRA affects B cell differentiation in these mucosal inductive sites.GRA Induces CD19+ B Cell Recruitment to the LPTo test how the timing of GRA dosing affected B and T cell populations in mucosal inductive sites as well as in the LP effector site, mice were treated either one day pre-infection and one day post-infection (or mock-infection) as before, or every other day for the course of the experiment. In the MLNs, significant increases in the CD8+ T cell population in GRA-treated, uninfected mice relative to vehicle-treated controls were observed (Figure 3). ThereGRA Induces ILF FormationFigure 1. Immune cell populations modulated by GRA in uninfected and rotavirus -infected mice. C57Bl/6 mice (n = 5 per group) were administered GRA or vehicle alone orally one day pre-infection with 105 SD50 of murine rotavirus strain EW, and then one day post-infection. Cells isolated from the MLNs and PPs were analyzed for changes in B cells (CD19), T cells (CD4 and CD8), their activation (CD69); and dendritic cells (CD11chigh and CD11clow), macrophages (CD11b), and plasma cells (CD138). *p,0.05, **p,0.01. Error bars are SEM. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049491.gwere no differences in CD4+ or CD8+ T cell populations between the different dosing schedules. In PPs, there were no significant differences in CD4+ T cells between GRA-treated and vehicle-treated uninfected or infected animals, except the overall percentages in infected mice were somewhat higher. In contrast, CD8+ T cells in the PPs markedly increased in GRA-t.